Learning-Centered Methods

 In language classrooms in the United States, instruction focuses on the learner and the learning process. The instructor creates a learning environment that resembles as much as possible the one in which students learned their first language. Students participate in the learning process by establishing learning goals, developing and choosing learning strategies, and evaluating their own progress. In the classroom, students attend to models provided by the instructor (input) and then build on those models as they use language themselves (output). Classroom activities incorporate real-world situations.
There are some models of methods in learning-centered. They are as follows:

A. TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE

What Is Total Physical Response (TPR)
          TPR is one of the English teaching approaches and methods developed by Dr. James J Asher. It has been applied for almost thirty years. This method attempts to center attention to encouraging learners to listen and respond to the spoken target language commands of their teachers. In other words, TPR is a language teaching method built around the coordination of speech and action; it attempts to teach language through physical (motor) activity.
          Asher’s Total Physical Response is a “natural method” since Asher views first and second language learning as parallel processes. He argues that second language teaching and learning should reflect the naturalistic processes of first language learning. For this reason, there are such three central processes:

• Before children develop the ability to speak, they develop listening competence. At the early phases of first language acquisition, they are able to comprehend complex utterances, which they hardly can spontaneously produce or imitate. Asher takes into accounts that a learner may be making a mental blueprint of the language that will make it possible to produce spoken language later during this period of listening;
• children's ability in listening comprehension is acquired because children need to respond physically to spoken language in the form of parental commands; and
• When a foundation in listening comprehension has been established, speech evolves naturally and effortlessly out of it.

          Asher believes that it is crucial to base foreign language learning upon how children learn their native language. In other words, TPR is designed based upon the way that children learn their mother tongue. In this respect, TPR considers that one learns best when he is actively involved and grasp what he hears (Haynes, 2004; Larsen-Freeman, 1986; Linse, 2005).
Advantages and Disadvantages of TPR
TPR has some advantages and disadvantages. Its advantages include:

1. It is a lot of fun. Learners enjoy it, and this method can be a real stirrer in the class. It lifts the pace and the mood;
2. It is very memorable. It does assist students to recognize phrases or words;
3. It is good for kinesthetic learners who are required to be active in the class;
4. It can be used both in large or small classes. In this case, it is no matter to have how many students you have as long as you are prepared to take the lead, the learners will follow;
5. It works well with mixed-ability classes. The physical actions get across the meaning effectively so that all the learners are able to comprehend and apply the target language;
6. It is no need to have a lot of preparation or materials using the TPR. In this regard, as long as you are competent of what you want to practice (a rehearsal beforehand can help), it will not take a lot of time to get ready;
7. It is very effective with teenagers and young learners; and
8. It involves both left and right-brained learning;

In addition to such advantages, TPR has disadvantages. Among them are:

• Students who are not used to such things might find it embarrassing. This can be the case initially that if the teacher is prepared to perform the actions, the students feel happier about copying. In addition, the students are in a group and do not have to perform for the whole class. This pleasure is reserved for the teacher;
• It is only really suitable for beginner levels. Whilst, it is clear that it is far more useful at lower levels because the target language lends itself to such activities even though it can successfully be applied at Intermediate and Advanced levels. In this respect, it is essential to adapt the language, accordingly. For example, when teaching 'ways of walking' (stumble, stagger, and tiptoe) to an advanced class and cooking verbs to intermediate students (whisk, stir, and grate), TPR can be employed;
• It is not flexibly used to teach everything, and if used a lot, it would be-come repetitive. This method is a fun way of changing the dynamics and pace of a lesson used in conjunction with other methods and techniques. To sum up, TPR should best be combined with others since it needs much energy so that learners do not feel tired of learning language; and
• Although the use of TPR in the classroom has often been effective, it does have its flaws. One of this method flaws is that when a teacher uses TPR in their lesson, they will have trouble teaching abstract vocabulary or expressions. As a remedy, the teacher can write the word on cards with a picture if applicable. Another flaw is that TPR can be ineffective if the teacher uses it for a long period of time without switching it with other activities that help teach the target language. Since TPR is made up of mainly of commands, it tends to neglect narrative, descriptions, and conversation forms of language

          This method is intended to overcome the fear of speaking out by beginners. The limitation of this method seems that it is effective for beginning levels of language proficiency.

B. THE SILENT WAY

          The Silent Way is the name of a method of language teaching devised by Caleb Gattegno. Gattegno's name is well known for his revival of interest in the use of colored wooden sticks called Cuisenaire rods and for his series Words in Color, an approach to the teaching of initial reading in which sounds are coded by specific colors. His materials are copyrighted and marketed through an organization he operates called Educational Solutions Inc., in New York. The Silent Way represents Gattegno's venture into the field of foreign language teaching. It is based on the premise that the teacher should be silent as much as possible in the classroom and the learner should be encouraged to produce as much language as possible. Elements of the Silent Way, particularly the use of color charts and the colored Cuisenaire rods grew out of Gattegno's previous experience as an educational designer of reading and mathematics programs. (Cuisenaire rods were first developed by Georges Cuis¬enaire, a European educator who used them for the teaching of math. Gattegno had observed Cuisenaire and this gave him the idea for their use in language teaching.)
The objective of The Silent Way Method of language teaching is for students to work as independent language learners. The teacher speaks very little when using this method. The role of the teacher is to draw the learners' attention to the way that they are going about the act of learning. The teacher facilitates the students' discoveries and helps the students to gain insight into the functioning of the language. In order to use this method some specific materials are required.
          The Silent Way is characterized by its focus on discovery, creativity, problem solving and the use of accompanying materials. Richards and Rodgers (1986:99) summarized the method into three major features.

1. Learning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates. The Silent way belongs to the tradition of teaching that favors hypothetical mode of teaching (as opposed to expository mode of teaching) in which the teacher and the learner work cooperatively to reach the educational desired goals. (cf Bruner 1966.) The learner is not a bench bound listener but an active contributor to the learning process.
2. Learning is facilitated by accompanying (mediating) physical objects. The Silent Way uses colorful charts and rods (cuisinere rods) which are of varying length. They are used to introduce vocabulary ( colors, numbers, adjectives, verbs) and syntax (tense, comparatives, plurals, word order …)
3. Learning is facilitated by problem solving involving the material to be learned. This can be summarized by Benjamin Franklin’s words:

“Tell me and I forget

Teach me and I remember

Involve me and I learn”

          A good silent way learner is a good problem solver. The teacher’s role resides only in giving minimum reputations and correction, remaining silent most of the times, leaving the learner struggling to solve problems about the language and get a grasp of its mechanism.
Disadvantages

• The Silent Way is often criticized of being a harsh method. The learner works in isolation and communication is lacking badly in a Silent Way classroom.
• With minimum help on the part of the teacher, the Silent Way method may put the learning itself at stake.
• The material (the rods and the charts) used in this method will certainly fail to introduce all aspects of language. Other materials will have to be introduced.

Advantages

• Learning through problem solving looks attractive especially because it fosters:
• creativity,
• discovery,
• increase in intelligent potency and
• Long term memory.

The critic of this method is that the teacher is too distance. Student often need more guidance from their teacher than the Silent Way permits.

C. THE COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING

          The Community Language Learning is the method which are use by the teachers to consider their students as ‘whole persons’. Whole persons mean that teachers consider not only their students intellect, but also have some understanding of the relationship among students feelings, physical reactions, instinctive protective reactions, and desire to learn. The teachers who use this method want their students to learn how to use the target language communicatively. They focus not only on the language but also on the being supportive of learners in their learning process. In the class, the teachers become counselor. It is doesn’t mean the teachers trained their students in psychology. In this method, the teachers use tape-recorded, transcription, reflection on experience, reflective listening, human computer, and small group tasks to see our ‘whole persons’. With use tape-recorded, they can learn about conversation easily. The teacher give them some ‘chunks’ on the transcript, they must repeat it with her. In this method, the teachers use small groups to help the students can get more practice with the target language and allow them to get to know each other better.

D. THE NATURAL APPROACH

          The term natural approach (or natural method) was first used in the nineteenth century to describe teaching methods, such as the direct method, that attempted to mirror the processes of learning a first language. Translation and grammar explanations were rejected, learners were exposed to sequences of actions, and the spoken form was taught before the written form. The term was resurrected by Tracy Terrell in the 1970s to describe a similar kind of approach. Learners were initially exposed to meaningful language, not forced to speak until they felt ready to, and not corrected or given explicit grammar instruction. The method was characterized by a lot of teacher talk, made intelligible through the use of visual aids and actions. The method was endorsed by Stephen Krashen, whose input hypothesis gave it theoretical validity. It also shared many principles in common with Total Physical Response (TPR). These included the importance of comprehensible input, and of promoting positive affect in the learning process. The natural approach seems to have become absorbed into what are generally known as humanistic teaching practices and whole language learning.
          As for practical ways of implementing these principles, this will depend on the level of the class. At beginner level, lots of TPR activities are called for, where learners simply respond to instructions by performing physical actions, such as pointing at things, handing each other objects, standing, walking, sitting down, writing and drawing. At higher levels, the focus is still on providing comprehensible input, in the form of listening or reading tasks, where learners order pictures, fill in grids, follow maps, and so on.
          These can be combined with communicative speaking tasks, such as ‘describe-and-draw’ or ‘spot-the-difference’, where learners work in pairs to exchange information about pictures. The important thing is that there is no grammar ‘agenda’ as such: the learners perform the tasks to the best of their ability. New input – and hence the ‘push’ to improve – comes from watching the teacher or a more proficient speaker performs the same tasks. In this sense, the natural approach is not much different from task-based learning, but with perhaps more emphasis on comprehension than production. A typical natural approach lesson at elementary to intermediate level might go something like this:

1. The teacher shows a set of pictures of, say, food and drink, repeating the word that goes with each with one; the students simply watch and listen.
2. The pictures are displayed around the room, and the students are asked to point at the appropriate picture when the teacher names it.
3. The students listen to a tape of a person (or the teacher) describing what they habitually eat at different meals; the students tick the items they hear on a worksheet.
4. The students are then given a gapped transcript of the previous listening activity, and they fill in the gaps from memory, before listening again to check.
5. The students, in pairs, take turns to read aloud the transcript to one another.
6. The students, still in their pairs, tell each other what they typically eat, using the transcript as a model.

          They repeat the task with another partner, this time without referring to the model.
          In addition to the Acquisition – Learning hypothesis, Krashen also proposes 4 other hypotheses, i.e. Comprehensible Input (t + 1) hypothesis, Affective Filter hypothesis, Monitor hypothesis, and Natural Order hypothesis. The problem with this method is in its difficulty to define some of the terms.

E. SUGGESTOPEDIA

          Suggestopedia is one of kind language teaching method which this method can occur at a much faster rate than ordinarily transpires. The teacher who used this method generally used posters or everything that can make the classroom is bright and colorful. It is can bring a cheerful environment for the students and helps the students to learn from what is present in the environment. The teacher must speak confidently, it is important to attract students attention. The teacher also gives the students the impression that learning the target language will be easy and enjoyable. With used this method, the teacher instructed the students to choose their new names and identities. In the principles, assuming a new identity enhances students feeling of security and allows them to be more open. After they choose new names and identities, they must introduce themselves to the teacher. In the classroom they also play rhythmic instruments as they sing a song for example, the teacher reads the dialog with a musical accompaniment. She matches her voice to the rhythm and intonation of the music. With used this method, the students can learn to use a foreign language for everyday communication; they can trust and respect their teacher.
          In Summary, the innovative methods such us those described above show us the principles and practices that we can consider for their implementation in our classrooms. We may adopt readapt any (part) of them which may be best for our own situations.

REFERENCES

Fachrurrazy, MA.Ph.D. 2010. Teaching English as a Foreign Language for
Teachers in Indonesia.English Department – Faculty of Letters The State
University of Malang.
http://www.onestopenglish.com
Haynes, J. 2004. TPR is a Valuable Tool. www.everythingESL.net.
http://www.vobs.at/ludescher/total_physical_response.htm.
Larsen-Freeman, D. 1986. Techniques and Principles in Language
Teaching.Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Linse, C. 2005. The Children s Response: TPR and Beyond . EnglishTeaching
Forum 43/1: 8-11.
http://tanpopofight.blogspot.com
Bruner, J. (1966). Toward a Theory of Instruction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.
Brown, H.D. (1987).Principles of language learning and teaching.
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice Hall
Jack, C.R. and Theodore S. Rodgers (1986). Approaches and methods in
language teaching: A description and analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press

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Learner-Centered Methods

A. What is CLT?
         After learning “What learns?” and “how to learnern?” the next step is
“who learns?”. It refers to CLT (Communicative Language Teaching). CLT is an approach to the teaching of second and foreign languages that emphasizes interaction. CLT is sometimes called communicative syllabus or communicative approach. It has spread widely and has become fashionable in the second and foreign language by focusing on the development of communicative competence. To do this, communicative language teachers use materials that focus on the language needed to express and understand different kinds of functions. CLT can be applied to all proficiency level of students.

B. Background of CLT
          Background is a history. The historical of CLT was begun in 1960s. some of reasons caused why CLT built. They are: United States rejected linguistic theory underlying Audiolingualism in the mid 1960s. So, British applied linguists began to call into question the theoretical assumption underlying situational language teaching. This statement was stated by Richard and Rodgers 1991:64.

The aims of CLT:

• make communicative competence the goal of language teaching
• develop procedures for the teaching of the four language skills (reading, Writing, speaking and listening) that acknowledge the interdependence of language and communication. (Richards and Rodgers 1986:66)

There are five features to characterise CLT. It is stated by Nunan:

1. An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language
2. The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation
3. The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language but also on the learning process itself.
4. An enhancement of the learner’s own personal experiences as important contributing elements to classroom learning.
5. An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activation outside the classroom. (Cited in Brown 1994a:78)

C. Communicative Competence models
Some of communicative competence model can be applid by the teachers to teach in the classroom.

 Discourse Speaking
It is used to know the students’ ability in speaking and writing discourse. So, the teachers know how well the students can combine grammatical forms and meaning to speak and write. It is called fluency
 Grammatical Competence
This model is used to measure the ability of the students in using the language correctly. By using this competence, the teachers can know how far and how well the students have learned features and rules of the language. This competence includes vocabulary, pronunciation, and sentence formation. So, the students speak well especialy in practicing the grammar.
In CLT, vocabulary is more important than grammar. Combinating skill in teaching language can be done once. It is still very important sinc CLT has been used by the teachrs all over the world.
 Sociolinguistic Competence
It reffers to the students’ capability of using language correctly in social sitation. It is based on the factors as the status of those speaking to each other. It is about appopiacy in using language. For example: In a job interview, we have to use polite language or when we spoke with our leader.
 Strategic Competence
The teachers used this competence to know how well the students use verbal forms and non-verbal communication. Strategic competence refers to strategies for effective communication. So the students have communicative efficacy.

c. CLT Syllabusses
In teaching some subjects, the teachers need to use syllabusses. In order, the materials archive what the teachers want (goal). By using syllabuses, the teachers can organize a material in learning curriculum and a method or an approach to teaching. Syllabuss contains of the prosedurals of teaching, from mechanisme until archievement and methods which are using for teaching learning, as follows:

• Focusing on the goals
• Techniques for teaching learning
• The reles in teaching learning

E. phases of CLT
There are three phases of CLT, they are:
1) The Wilkins period (1976) with the term of notions and functions.
In this period Wilkins’ idea and other national-functional syllabuses were criticized as merely replacing one kind of list, as list of grammar items with another and lacking a communicative process
2) The Munby period (1978) with the needs analysis.
It appears to have developed into English for specific purposes (ESP).
3) The Prabhu period (1984) with procedural, process, and task syllabus.
In this period is characterized by the development of task-based CLT. Prabu introduced one type of task-based CLT, calld the procedural syllabus.

There are many activities that can be used in CLT
They are:

1. Role Play
2. Interviews
3. Information Gap
4. Games
5. Language Exchanges
6. Surveys
7. Pair Work
8. Learning by teaching

Those activities can make the students more active in speaking skill and can develop their vocabularies as much as well. But sometimes the teachers give grammar quizzes or prepare at home using non-communicative dills, for instance.
F. Criticisms on CLT
There are many criticisms in using CLT. That’s because of different backgrounds of the counties, the teachers skill, resources, equipments, etc. Some criticisms were written by some searchers, as below:

1. In China, the teachers found difficulties to use CLT. The reasons are traditional teaching methods, class sizes and schedules (Burnaby and sun: 1989)
2. In Hongkong, the teachers use CLT in the local context and only sparingly because it required too much preparation time. (Chau and Chung : 1987)
3. In japan, the students studied generally did not feel a pressing need to use English, so that the goal of communicative competence seemed so far fo them.

In short, CLT models are neded by teachers in the world but they have to adopt this models according to the background of the county. So, it can archieve the goals.
G. Conclusion
CLT is not a single method. It has a number of different syllabuses. It has spread widely and has become fashionable in the second or foreign language area. Many teachers around the world feel that they ought to adopt it to be up to date. They seek to provide opportunities for learners to practice preselected, presequenced linguistic structures and communicative notions through function focused activities, assuming that a preoccupation with form and function.

References:

1. Fachrurrazy. 2010. Teaching English as a foreign language for teachers in Indonesia.
English Department, Faculty of Letters, State University of Malang.
2. http://www20.uludag.edu.tr/~acan/studies/C%20LTeaching.htm
3. http://www.cal.org/ERICCLL/DIGEST/gallow01.html
4. http://www.silinternational.net/lingualinks/LANGUAGELEARNING/WaysToApproachLanguageLearning/CommunicativeLanguageTeaching.htm
5. Hymes, D. 1970. On Communicative competence. In Pride, J.B and Holmes, J. (Eds), sociolinguistics. Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin Books.
6. Kasihani. 2001. Contextual learning and teaching (CLT). Bahan seminar jurusan sastra Inggris-UM.

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Language-Centered Methods

         Looking back at more than 150 years of development in teaching practice, there have been a some methods which have heavily influenced current TEFL practices. Early in the twentieth century language study was deeply ingrained in analysis of grammar language.
         A linguists like Jespersen postulated that study of language should be communicative, or incontext. Several contextual language study methods have since emerged as being intrumental in current TEFL Practices. The following is description of a number of language –centered methods.

A. Grammar Translation Method. (GTM)

          Grammar Translation Method was the most popular teaching method for over 100 years and it continues to be used even today despite many years of criticism. The focus of this approach is based on reading, writing and grammar rules rather than spoken or communicative skills.
The characteristics of GTM:

1. Classes are taught in mother with little active use of the target language.
2. Vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of words
3. Long explanation grammar are given.
4. Use exercises in grammatical analysis.
5. Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.

          This method emphasized mastery of knowledge about language and did not aim at mastering productive skills (speaking and writing).
An example of GTM class:
The teacher teaches many english part of speech, definition of each (noun, verb, adjective, adverb, prepotition, etc).
Classification of nouns (singular-plurar, countable-uncountable) the rules for changing singular into plural nouns.
For vocabulary, the students will be given lists of words and they are asked to translate and memorize them.
For reading, they are asked the subject or predicate in sentence, and asked to change the tenses, ex : from present into past tense.

B. Direct Methods (DM)

          The basis of this method was developed in Europe by Francois Gouin in the 1880s. He states that it was best to learn language by listening to it and speaking it just as children do, in stead of learning a set of grammar rules and vocabulary lists. The goal of this method is to teach students how to converse in everyday.
The characteristics of DM:

1. Lessons begin with a brief anecdote or dialog.
2. The material is presented orally with actions, and pictures.
3. There is no translation.
4. The type of exercise in a series of question in the target language based on the dialog and answered in the target language.
5. Grammar is taught inductively.
6. Students read literature for comprehension and pleasure not analyzed grammatically.
7. Correct pronunciation is emphasized, but correct structure is not.

In Indonesia, this method was adopted in the beginning of 1960s.

An example of DM class:
The teacher gives a short dialog orally.
A: Where are you going?
B: I am going to school
A: What do you want?
B: I want to study English.
Then the dialog is repeated to the students, after that they are asked to memorize and practice the dialog in front of class.

C. Reading Method (RM)

          This method is selected for practical reasons. Because people who do not travel abroad, reading is the one usable skill.
The characteristics of RM:

1. The material is emphasized on reading ability
2. The grammar necessary for reading is taught.
3. Little attention for pronunciation.
4. Vocabulary is assumed more important than grammatical skills.

This method was criticized because it looked like returning to the GTM.

D. Audiolingual Method (ALM)

          The method appeared in 1950s to 1970s, but it was critisized because some of the characteristics are taken from Direct Method.
The characteristics of ALM:

1. Material is given in dialog form
2. There is dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases.
3. Sructures are taught one at a time.
4. Structural patterns are taught using repeatation drills.
5. Little or no grammatical explanation.
6. The pattern: listen- speak- read- write.
7. Use of tapes, language labs, and visual aids.
8. Pronunciation and intonation are consider important.

An example of ALM:
The teacher gives some real objects:
- It is a book. - It is a pencil. - etc.
Then the students are asked to repeat the phrase. After that the teacher gives them the negative form, and introgative form. Then they are asked to repeat as before.
This type using pattern cycle.

E. Cognitive Method (CM)

          Cognitive Method is a reaction to behaviorist features of Audiolingual Method.
The characteristics of CM:

1. There is emphasis on communicative competence.
2. Language acquistion is seen as rule formation, deductive explanatin of grammar is preferred.
3. Pronunciation is de-emphasized.
4. There is renewed interest in vocabulary.
5. Teacher is as fasilitator rather than a figure of absolute authority.
6. The importance of comprehension, especially listening comprehension.
7. The written language skills (reading and writing) and the spoken language skills (listening and speaking) are equal importance.
8. Bilingual- bicultural proficiency is seen as an ideal goal.

F. Eclectic Method (EM)

          The Eclectic Method is similar with the Cognitive Method. They are some general principles or attitudes, some conclusions that are drawn from current research and thinking in the field.
The characteristics of EM:

1. Language learning must be meaningful, real.
2. Translation is specialized language skills and is inappropriate for beginning learner and teacher of language.
3. Language learning should be done in the target language.
4. Mimicry, memorization, and pattern practice do not teach language.
5. Reading aloud.
6. Use of a large and varied vocabulary.
7. Reading and writing are taught as soon as the student is ready.
8. Most student errors are not caused by language interference but mostly in pronunciation area.

          In summary language learning will not occur unless the student is able, wants to, makes a personal commitment to learn. In whatever way you measure will be the student choise and decision that determines his language learning process.

REFERENCES

Fachrurrazy, M.A., Ph.D. 2010. Teaching English as a Foreign Language for Teachers in Indonesia. Malang: The State University of Malang.
www.teflworldwiki.com/index.php/Grammar_Translation. accessed on 8th of March. 2011
www.norwoodenglish.com/download/online_TEFL_Certificate_Introductory_Unit.pdf. accessed on 8th of March. 2011
www.teflplace.com. Accessed on 8th of March. 2011
www.tefl.net/esl-articles/history-esl-teaching.htm. accessed on 8th of March. 2011

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